Louis Brown Ogbeifun

By Louis Brown Ogbeifun | July 13, 2008

INTRODUCTION.

Kiiza, 2005 in unpacking democracy and the role of parties said “democracy is a term derived from two Greek words – demos (or people) and kratos (rule)”. Since the key components are people and rule, it will ultimately involve a system in which the people of a given constituency, come together as specified by their electoral laws, to vote and elect some people to rule over them for some specified period. This must be in consonance with the constitution. In a multi-party system, democracy offers alternative choices to the citizenry.  

The choices in a true democracy are informed by the parties’ manifestoes, credibility of the candidates, their contributions to the welfare of the people and the upliftment of society. Unfortunately, in most democracies in Africa, the people hardly elect their leaders because the money bags hijack the electioneering process, fraudulently manipulate the electoral system and select those they want as leaders over the majority.

However, whatever happens at the end of the day, some set of people would emerge at both the Executive and legislative levels. Logically, all the political parties cannot form the central government. Therefore, the party with the majority of vote counts will be given the mandate to form the central government while the rest would constitute the minority groups or the opposition.  

Democracies in most parts of the world rest on a tripod as propounded by traditional political scientists like John Locke, Jean-Jacquie Rousseau and Montesquieu:v  Executivev  Legislaturev  Judiciary

However, Kiiza, (2005) disagrees with this categorization. He opines that “A modern state has five arms, not three, the fourth being the army and the fifth, the civil service (or bureaucracy). Neither national defense (which is the duty of the military) nor public administration (which is done by the civil service) is really performed by the three traditional arms of government. It deliberately forges tight party-military relations to perpetuate the incumbent regime in power”. 

The Executive has the President, the Governors and the Local Government Chairmen and their cabinets. Once they are sworn in, they are supposed to implement policies that will improve the welfare of the people. Amenities are to be evenly distributed without prejudice to how the people voted. At the level of the Executive, few of those who lost in the elections could be brought in to form the government of national unity instead of the-winner-takes-all mentality as witnessed in the present administration in Nigeria. Such ministers or commissioners are appointed at pleasure and are expected to support the government in power. 

The legislature makes laws for the good of the citizenry. At the National level, the Senate is known as the upper Chamber and the House of Representatives as the lower chamber. They perform oversight functions to ensure that money appropriated by the Executive is spent on the projects the appropriation was made. The party with the majority in the House chooses the majority leader and occupies most of the top positions in the House Committees, while those in the minority also have their parallel organ like the Minority leader. It is at the level of the legislature that the opposition’s role is profound because the members in the two houses represent different constituencies.   

At this level, debates are often time fierce and competitive because of the divergent interests between the majority and the minority parties. The minority groups carry out their activities in line with the provisions of the constitution. This aids the House at generating many other policy options from several perspectives. This is followed by intense lobbying to get most views and bills through. It is a legitimate legal system that helps to moderate the action of the majority party, ensures that the interests of the common people are protected at all times, that the party in government rule responsibly and that the state apparatuses of coercive agencies are not negatively used to turn the country into a Gestapo state.

These minority parties that do not form the central government constitute what is termed “the opposition” in parliament. The Leader of the opposition is normally the leader of the largest party outside the ruling party, which is usually the second largest party in the Senate or House of Representatives or House of Commons in Britain. This position is unique to the extent that in Britain he or she is normally viewed as an alternative Prime Minister and is a member of the Privy Council (Wikipedia). The term “His Majesty’s opposition” was first used by, Sir John Cam Hobhouse, a British MP in 1826 (Mackenzie, 1959). Since then, it has taken an acceptable norm in most parts of the world.

However, in some instances, those at the helm of political affairs at the Executive level will usually appoint judicial officers, members of Boards and parastatals that will use the paraphernalia of officialdom to perpetuate acts inimical to the interests of the common man and at times use them to subvert the constitution they swore to protect. Without a strong opposition, the rulers will soon assume a deafening dictatorship.  Therefore, it is an imperative for the government in power that a healthy opposition is consciously encouraged to act as a check to emerging authoritarianism, which may breed anarchy and societal dysfunction like we have today in Zimbabwe.

Responsible opposition is the bedrock of sustainable democracy and opposition parties must be encouraged, granted access to information and the media.  The political party in power should know that within the population lays a huge silent majority, who did not vote for them but should have their views passed to the government. These views must be propagated and the only way this can be possible is through the opposition. Therefore, the executive must be tolerant, no matter how bitter the views expressed are. The Executive must show patience and understanding in order to maintain the symbiotic relationship that should exist between it and all other opposing voices.

The intolerance of the government of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo reached its crescendo when OBJ himself referred to Reverend Yakubu Pam, a shepherd over God’s sheep and the Chairman of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) Plateau State as “a big fool”; “Reverend my foot”, depicted Prof. Sam Aluko as senile, one of his Ministers who referred to the Senators as fools advised labour unions to form their own party if they cannot accept the policy options of the government in power. No matter the stupidity in the suggestions of others outside government, government officials must show respect and learn to tolerate other people’s views. Mahatma Gandhi opines that, “intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit” (cf. UNDP, 2002).  

The Opposition must be allowed to thrive in order to act as check to the excesses of the Executive without which absolutism, tyranny and authouritarianism will emerge. For instance, King Louis IV reigned as king of France from 936 to 954. At a point, he declared: L’etat c’est moi! i.e. I am the state! (Kiiza, 2005).  In 1993, the judiciary was the tool used by enemies of democracy to annul June 12 elections. This could not have been possible without the tacit approval and support by the military ruler General Ibrahim Babangida (IBB) and his Armed Forces Ruling Council.  But for the massive opposition, he would have been there for some more years. The opposition by the progressives, labour unions, CSOs, National Democratic Coalition of Nigeria (NADECO) made IBB to step aside on August 26 1993. Late General Abacha who took over from Chief Earnest Sonekan cunningly got the political parties to endorse him as the “only man who the cap fitted”. He would have transformed into a civilian president in October but for the unforeseen hands of death that stopped his ambition. We witnessed the manipulation of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo on the third term issue. But for the hues and cries of the progressives in the National assembly, the opposition, civil societies, the media and the Unions; he would have succeeded. Momentarily, the world is witnessing a bad dream in democracy in Zimbabwe where security agents are hounding the opposition in order to break their will.  This must not be allowed in any modern society. 

Democratic governance has moved away from the concept of Her Majesty’s loyal opposition to that of responsible or constructive opposition (Bagbin, 2007). This to me, means that whereas the opposition has the responsibility of ensuring that a stable and united nation exists; it must not be compromised to the level of making the polity a one party state, which breeds tyranny, autocracy and misrule.  

The Role of the Opposition.

1.     As the voice of the voiceless.

There is a huge majority who cannot be heard for so many reasons. These people rely on the opposition to speak on their behalf and bring to the fore their expectations.

2.     Provide viable policy alternatives and options to the ruling government.  

The opposition should not only criticize but provide viable policy alternatives and options. For example, during the first Republic, the Federal government and some regions imposed fees in schools under their control, the Western region implemented free health and education at all levels. To prove that this was attainable, Chief Obafemi Awolowo in his book, the voice of wisdom, wrote extensively on the topics on pages 47-48; 102-103 showing how the programs can be funded.

The marooned reforms in the energy sector might have been avoided if the opposition pressed for the Independent Power Project (IPP) as alternatives to the decayed power structures early in the life of the last administration. Also, the opposition in the last legislature failed woefully in putting pressure on their colleagues in the National Assembly in the area of oversight functions as they got submerged in the political waters for selfish reasons.

3.     Ensure the survival of the democracy through responsible opposition.

The opposition, civil societies and labour unions should not just oppose the ruling party as a way of pulling down the government. True democracy has no better alternative and should not be killed. It is only in true democracy that the people can own the processes of governance. Criticisms must be done with moderation and not done in such a way as to ruin the survival of democracy. For every criticism, the opposition must proffer better, workable and viable options. It should abhor violence as a way of protesting against the wrongs perpetrated by the government of the day.

4.     Pursue through legal means, legislation on freedom of information bill.

Information is power. It is in the interest of the opposition to see to the emergence of an unfettered press. It should do everything possible to ensure that the journalists are not gagged. It should fight for the freedom of the press through the passage of the freedom of information bill. Though it is their right to have access to the State own media, they should not solely rely on the State’s media in order to reach out to the people. It should strive to have its own electronic and print media. However, such platform must not be used to subvert the tenets of democracy or undermine the security of the nation and the Government.

5.     Mobilization of the people in a peaceful manner to resist obnoxious laws and perpetuation in power.

At times the Executive might take actions that are inimical to the interest of the people. Government may also refuse to listen to the suggestions and alternative views from the opposition. The opposition should mobilize themselves and the masses for peaceful protests. To do this and to exercise necessary controls, the leadership should be involved and be at the forefront.  Professor Wole Soyinka, late Dr. Beko Kuti, Chief Gani Fawehinmi, Femi Falana, late Chuba Okadigbo, General M. Buhari took to the streets in various parts of the country at one time or the other from 1999-2005. In America, Martin Luther King Junior and others used this instrument to turn things around for the black people. Government at such times should provide adequate security so that such protests are not hijacked. The use of tear gas and bullets by the security agencies should be discouraged.

6.     Protection of national interests.

The opposition should not be involved in things that will truncate democracy, undermine national interests, security, sovereignty, national integrity, constitution and unity of the country because if the opposition carries out any activities that will eventually give room for the disintegration of the country, the nation would have been taken  back several decades. If this happened, the citizenry shall be the end losers.

7.     Shaping policy agenda.

 The opposition should conduct civic education, public enlightenment, propagation of ideologies that would impact positively on the welfare of the masses, fighting corruption single handedly or in alliance with other progressives through the media and road shows etc. A good example of this was the coming together of some elders and civil society organizations under aegis of the Pro-National Conference Organizations (PRONACO) led Pa Anthony Enahoro and Professor Wole Soyinka to fashion out an alternative constitution to that of the government in power.

At other times, the opposition persistently called for sovereign national conference and the restructuring of the country as a way of addressing the imbalance in the polity. In the south-south, the Governors have been agitating for resource control as a way of addressing the problems in the Niger Delta. All these are ways of trying to put pressure on the government to effect changes that will ultimately change the status quo.

8.     Reliance on the Judiciary.

The opposition should work assiduously towards the enthronement of effective separation of powers of the political system, which is the hallmark of true democracy. The courts should be used to check the excesses of the Executive. In the 60s, people resorted to the destruction of lives and properties to protest electoral fraud. However, considering the recent reversals of some of the results of the April 2007 elections polls in Nigeria, the judiciary has reinvented itself, charted a new course and proven to be a reliable and last hope of the common man if it chooses to. It is in this light we commend both the opposition and the government for using the judiciary to settle these electoral scores. 

9.     Canvass for free and fair elections and electoral reforms.

10.    Addressing the inadequacies of the government.  

Reaching out to the masses to point out the flaws and the inadequacies of government should be a common phenomenon. The government in power should not be made to be too complacent or too comfortable to forget to perform the duties for which they were elected.

11.   Act as alternative government in power.

The opposition should see itself as a credible alternative to the government in power. It should have a structure in place in the semblance of a cabinet with very strong research units that will generate viable policy options. This will enable it contribute meaningful from an empirical base and provide alternative blue prints to that of the government in power.

12.   Building networks.

Building of networks with CSOs, labour unions and other pressure groups to fight corruption, abuse of office, violation of human rights and intended overt or covert means of perpetuating extension of term not in tandem with the constitution and the will of the people.

13.    Greater coordination of efforts.

The Conference for Nigerian Political Parties (CNPP) is a coalition of political parties that are in opposition to the PDP led government. They have played their roles well but I believe they need more coordinated efforts in order to achieve the objectives of what an opposition stands for. For instance, at the inception of the Yar’Adua administration, while some favoured a government of national unity, others opposed it. So far, they must be credited with the push for actualizing their goals without violence, which characterized the field of politics before 1999.

14.    Demand for accountability of the government in power.

The opposition at all times must demand from the Executive, the account of how much it has received from the federation account and what it has paid out. The Houses of Assemblies must be pressured to perform their oversight functions. While demand is made of the Executive arm, the representatives of the people also must be made to account for their constituency allowances and projects executed; how many bills were proposed and signed etc. By the same token, the State Governors and Local Government Chairmen must be made to account for their revenue receipts and expenditure.

The role(s) of civil society and labour unions. 

The opposition has its roots in all facets of the society and not just limited to the few people in the National or States Houses of Assembly who act as representatives of various strata of the political divide.

The civil society organizations are non governmental organizations that operate outside governmental structures. They are very important in the building and development of enduring democratic process. 

1)     Focus and agenda setting.

Any organization going into the field of advocacy for the interest of the masses must have its focus and proper agenda setting on what it wants to do and achieve on behalf of the people.

2)     Legitimacy.

Ensure that the organization is legitimized through the proper registration with appropriate government agencies, e.g. the Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC). We have an experience of an umbrella organization for a coalition not registered and therefore not known to law. This can be very embarrassing and frustrating if there is the need to recourse to the law courts for judicial intervention.

3)     Advocacy.

The CSO’s and labour Unions use advocacy as a potent tool to canvass their ideals, civil rights and grass root mobilization. We owe a duty of care to the silent voiceless majority whose voices must be heard through us in order to make their lives better. This was aptly demonstrated when the CSOs and labour unions formed the Labour and Civil society Coalition (LASCO) to stand in the gap for the silent majority against incessant hike in fuel prices, the sales of our national assets in a dubious and questionable manner to a few fronts of those in power from 1999-2005. 

Today, the truth is gradually coming to light. We have seen and heard the scandals in the power sector, the Federal capital Development Authority (FCDA) land revocation and reallocation scams, the reversal of the sales of the refineries and the steel industries. Without this form of pressure, the government in power can become a hydra headed behemoth of unimaginable proportion that will wreak so much havoc on the governed as it is in Zimbabwe now.

4)     Broad based coalition.

 Form a broad based coalition to synergize and organize grass roots education, massive enlightenment campaigns for good governance, transparency and accountability through road shows, workshops and seminars. This is important because sweeping clean demands the strength of the bunch of brooms. For instance, the Publish What You Pay (PWYP); a coalition of several Civil Society Organizations and the Civil Society Legislative Advocacy Centre (CISLAC); Trade Union Congress (TUC)/Nigerian Labour Congress NLC and their affiliates, human and civil rights organizations and other interest groups did quite a lot to get the NEITI bill passed at the twilight of the last administration. For the first time in the history of any nation, Nigeria carried out a financial, process and physical audits of the oil and gas sector from 1999-2004. That of 1999-2005 report is being waited. 

5)     Mobilization of the Masses. 

The CSOs and the Unions must be good mobilizers of the masses in order to effectively use them during mass actions.  The country witnessed several mass mobilizations of market women, artisans and drivers, professional associations by Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC) and Trade Union Congress (TUC) etc; against the Obasanjo administration because of petroleum price increases. The actions were successful because of the belief and confidence in the leadership of those at the forefront of the struggle. Most of the time, government had to reverse itself on several issues.

  6)     Specialization. 

The era of One-man-CSO in the hand bag, canvassing the cure for several societal ills is gone. CSOs should be organized to concentrate in one service area and those behind the formation should strive to be knowledgeable in that field. It is in so doing that we can harness the benefits and synergy to adequately advocate for any meaningful change. I say this because you can only give what you have. You cannot give what you do not have.

7)     Capacity building.

Civil society organizers and unionists must strive at all times to update their knowledge because those in government have hired personnel that do extensive research to back up their claims. For instance, when the last administration confronted Nigerians with plat template as a basis for fuel price increases, labour unions presented empirical data on what obtains in other oil producing nations and the need for the Government to do certain basic things before contemplating any further increase. Before the first increase, basic pay for some level of civil servants was less than $100 per month. While comparing Nigeria with Europe, labour also demanded for welfare and social safety nets parity to cushion the effect of any increase as it is obtainable in Europe.

8)     Effective coordination of efforts.

 CSOs and labour unions should strive to be more co-coordinated. Several CSOs have crisis of succession, leadership tussle and lack of proper structures. These will act as a distraction and must not be allowed to happen.  

 9)     Partnerships.

 The opposition should endeavour to build partnerships with professional groups like: NBA, Nurses and Midwives Association, NMA, Artisans, Teachers’ Associations etc. This will make joint actions more successful should the need to stage a peaceful protest arise. 

10)   Structured internal democracy.

 Civil Society organizations have since become the platform for teaching the norms and values in politics. They have been the breeding grounds and the grooming of future political leaders. However, many of our CSOs are dependent on donor nations and therefore tailor their advocacies towards the needs, aspirations and objectives of such donors. Compounding this challenge is lack of deep democratization of some of these CSOs. Some, just like the political parties are enmeshed in leadership and succession struggles. 

 It has been noted that CSOs “with structured democracy articulates democratic values the most in their members own members, spread these norms most effectively across the larger polity, committed over a longer period to the promotion of democracy, bridge ethnic divide more effectively than do non-democratic groups, less inclined towards opportunism in seeking donor assistance, more interest focus and accountable” (Kew, 2005). Closely associated with this, is the need to ensure credibility and transparency in the activities of CSOs.

11)   Lobbying.

 Building bridges of strong ties through the process of lobbying among all the groups that can progress the course of CSOs is Sequa non to the development of an enduring democracy. In a democracy, the National and States’ Houses of Assembly constitute a fertile ground for such activities. This is necessary because apart from making of good laws for good governance, the Assemblies can ensure transparency, due process and accountability in governance through diligent oversight functions. Lobbying activities should be carried to the floor of the Judicial Commission, Nigerian Judicial Council and all other relevant organs in the judicial processes for the enthroning of effective judicial systems that would make it impossible for a reminiscence of June 12 1993. 

Challenges.

•  The Executive, like we have seen in so many countries loot their treasuries and use such loots to oppress the opposition, CSO’s, labour unions. At times, they share the loot to willing hands who will aid them in perpetrating electoral fraud during elections.
•  Poverty.
•  Illiteracy.
•  Restriction of the opposition from the use of the state media.
•  Using security agencies to hound opposition groups.
•  Lack of ideologies different from that of the party in power.
•  Recycling of political jobbers.
•  Incoherent and weak party structures.
•  Greed and fight over party offices.
•  Carpet crossing.
•  Hijacking of political structures.
•  In most African countries, the government in power uses the incumbency factor to rig elections and ensure that all other arms of governance are littered with party loyalists.
•  Corruption.
•  Indiscipline.
•  Transparency and accountability issues.
•  Infiltration of the ranks of opposition, civil society organizations and labour unions by the Executive 

Youths and modern day governance

Youths from time immemorial have been at the vanguard of changes for the prosperity of nations. In the holy books, majority of the prophets were youths. In Nigeria, during the pre-independence struggle, youths served as the vanguard for change. In the 30s-50s, several youths’ organizations were formed to challenge the older generations at elections and the colonial masters. The Lagos Youth Movement (LYM) was formed in 1934 by H. 0. Davies, Dr J. C. Vaughan, Dr Kofo Abayomi, Ernest Ikoli, Nnamdi Azikiwe and Obafemi Awolowo which later transformed into the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) in 1936 (Wikipedia). Unbelievably, in 1938 the NYM was said to have contested against older parties and won three seats in Lagos.

 The youths of old played a very major role in bringing into the country western education. Their agitation led to the creation of a campus of the University of London, which later metamorphosed into the University of Ibadan in 1948. The youths were at the vanguard for the fierce struggle against colonialism, which led to Nigeria’s independence. From our Independence up till about the 80s, we saw positive vibrancy in youth organizations as in the Ali-must-go and wide spread students’ strikes of 1978. These were in reaction to the re-introduction of school fees in tertiary institutions. The May 23, 1986 ABU episode was to protest against the arbitrary dismissal of the student leaders.

Wole Soyinka and six others formed the National association of seadogs in 1952 (Pirates confraternity) as a means of solidarity with the less privileged to fight against class distinction, oppression and the dehumanization of man. Irrespective of the confraternal activities, Soyinka became an icon, bacon of hope and light to his generation. In his thirties, he had written The Lion and the Jewel. The politicians of old like Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Chief Nanmdi Azikwe, Sadauna of Sokoto, Chief S. L. Akintola, Alhaji Aminu Kano, Chief Sam Mbakwe, Mbadiwe etc; occupied various sensitive and high profile offices in government or within their parties in their thirties or early forties. 

Sadly, what we identify with our youths of today is the formation of all kinds of deadly cults, which they use as instruments of terror to destroy those who are opposed to their beliefs, against female folks, lecturers and fellow students instead of confronting the agents of government that have made life worthless for the average youth.  

Challenges

• Emigration of our youths to other lands in search of greener pastures.
• Decay in educational and social infrastructure.
• High unemployment rate.
• Laziness.
• Poverty.
• Cultism.
• Lack of definitive agenda and non-value added militancy.
• GRQ (Get-Rich-Quick) complex.
• Moral bankruptcy  

Intervention.

• Reorientation of youths.
• Vocational studies and multiple skilling.
• Introspect to identify your strength and weakness to know who you are.
• Reinvent yourself.
• Functional and effective educational system.
• Cultural rebirth.
• Job creation: Massive diversification from oil based economy to farming and agro allied industries.
• Networking.
• Advocacy and enlightenment.
• Volunteerism.
• Positive roles of parents.
• Positive roles by teachers.
• Moral rebirth and massive enlightenment by religious organizations.
• Intervention by all strata of society.
• Infrastructural development: schools, energy, health etc 

For the youths to contribute meaningfully to the development of a nation, they need to ask themselves the following questions:

1. What do the youths of today want?
2.  What ideologies do the youths want to propagate?
3. What are the youths doing to actualize the propagated ideologies in terms of:

• Structures
• Planning
• Process
• Evaluation 
• Feedback.

 TIPS TO ASSIST THE YOUTHS REDISCOVER THEMSELVES

• Do the analysis of where you are now (job, marriage, vocation, school etc.); where you are supposed to be and where you ultimately want to be. Measure the difference in terms of achievements and gaps. If on the negative balance, not to worry. Go into your quiet time and diagnose why the gap exists and take steps to fill the gap.
• Draw short and long term plans to assist your growth and ensure you draw up measures to evaluate your success on monthly, quarterly or yearly basis.
• Identify your strengths and weaknesses. Build on your strengths and make conscious efforts to develop area of weaknesses into strength.
• Always plan and attach timelines ahead for all events.
• Appraise the type of the company you keep. If you congregate with failures and pessimists you are likely to fail. The type of company you keep will largely depend on the level of your achievements. If you are always in the company of criminals, be ready to share in their woes if security agencies come after them.
• Cultivate positive values. What you are ashamed to do in the open, do not do it in secret.
• Be an optimist and see opportunities in all challenges. Believe that all things are possible and that you can always be the best in all endeavour.
• Believe in your faith and your capabilities. Remember, because nothing is impossible.
• Don’t be afraid of failing, failure is a part of the learning process. Use the experience of failure to plan your next strategy. Strive not to make the same mistake twice.
• When you fail, do not be afraid to take the next step. If you fall, make concerted efforts to get up and progress beyond where you are.
• Be upright and loyal in all things.
• Find time to meditate.
• Never dwell in guilt trips. Learn to forgive yourself and others that have offended you. Your yesterday is in the cemetary, dead and buried 
• If a student, are you reading to please your parents or you are in love with your study? You need to be a square peg in a square hole.
• Never stop to ask questions on what you do not understand.
• Be passionate with whatever course of study you have willingly signed into.
• Let go of the failures of yesterday and reverse them for a successful tomorrow.
• Do not blame people for your failure. You are likely to be the major cause. Take responsibility for your drawbacks. Analyse the cause(s) of the drawbacks and address them.
• Live and relate well with people.
• Respect for lawful authorities and elders.
• Think smart, walk smart, work smart and relate smartly. These are just some tips to appraise yourselves to know if you are in the right place or vocation. If not, it is not too late. Re-invent yourself now and turn things around for yourself, your family, community, and the world. Remember that the youths are the carriers of the seed of the future of any nation. Our Government must deliberately put them in their plans so that our tomorrow can be better than today. I shall end this lecture by asking you all this morning, as youths, what are you doing to put your names on the positive side of history? So that at the end of time, an epitaph on your tomb might read; here lays a great man/woman, a patriot, who in his/her lifetime changed world for good through………….     In the United States, we have extensively read how the youths like Martin Luther King and others led the struggle against racial discrimination, oppression and poverty. Though he was cut down in his prime, he is forever in the psyche and hearts of the people. He is being celebrated all over the world years after his demise. To you I ask, what would you be remembered for long after you have left mother earth? Thank and God bless you.

References:

Awolowo, O (1999); Voice of Wisdom , Oluseyi Press, Ibadan, p.47-48; 102-103

Bagbin, A. S. K et al (2007); the role, rights and responsibilities of theOpposition, 53^rd Commonwealth Parliamentary conference, New delhi, India Dahl, R., A., 1971: Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition, (New Haven: Yale University Press

http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=9250

Kenneth Mackenzie, The English Parliament, (Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1959), p. 116.Kew, D (2005); The Role of Civil Society Groups in Strengthening Governance and Capacity: Avenues for Support, Boston.

Kiiza, J (2005); The Role of Opposition Parties in a Democracy, Arusha, Tanzania 

Ogbeifun, L. B. (2008); Labour Crises in the Education Sector: Challenges to Development in Education: at the Conference of the Nigerian Institute of Management (Chattered), Jos.

UNDP [United Nations Development Program], 2002: Human Development Report 2002: Deepening Democracy in a Fragmented World, (New York: Oxford University Press). 

Excerpts from the workshop by Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, in co-operation with the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago and the Citizens’ Agenda Network (2005) – Government and Opposition – roles, Rights and Responsibilities, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 25-27 July 2005�

 

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